Box Turtle Mortality
Investigation: Case Series and Recommendations
Laura A. Adamovicz,1 DVM; Matthew C. Allender,
DVM, PhD, Dipl ACZM1
1Wildlife
Epidemiology Lab, Department of Comparative Biosciences,
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois,
Urbana, IL 61802 USA
The Eastern box turtle (Terrapene
carolina carolina) is declining due to anthropogenic and
environmental factors such as habitat loss and road
mortality (Dodd, 2001). Several pathogens including
ranavirus, Terrapene herpesvirus 1,
Mycoplasma sp.,
and adenovirus have been recently identified in clinically
ill or deceased box turtles. Mortality events due to disease
have been increasingly reported for box turtles, and
investigations into baseline health and the effects of
single and co-pathogen infection are ongoing. Complete
investigation of free-living box turtle mortality events can
provide incredibly valuable information for determining the
importance of different pathogens for box turtle population
wellness and conservation. However, several practical issues
such as delayed recognition of mortality events, inability
to collect appropriate diagnostic samples, lack of
specialized diagnostic laboratories, and cost often impede
thorough assessment of wildlife mortality events.
This presentation will describe four mortality event
investigations in T.
carolina carolina, illustrate resulting changes in
surveillance and diagnostic strategies, describe
improvements in our ability to characterize mortality events
in box turtles, and review continued obstacles in wildlife
disease and mortality investigation. Specific
recommendations for biosecurity and terrestrial chelonian
mortality investigation strategies will be discussed.
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Matt Allender,
College of Veterinary
Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Wildlife Epidemiology Lab: From Zero to 2770 captures in 9
years
(no abstract provided)
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Hematologic Survey of Co-Pathogens in Free-ranging Eastern
Box Turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina) in Illinois
Grace Archer, Matthew C. Allender, Laura Adamovicz,
Christopher A. Phillips, and Mark Band
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign.
The use of box turtles as biosentinels has been suggested
due to their long lifespans, small home ranges, and the fact
that they inhabit aquatic as well as terrestrial areas. In
order to use health changes in these animals as indications
of environmental health, a baseline must be established so
that trends can be noted. More specifically, the natural
prevalence and occurrence of pathogens that are both
established and emerging is needed. A survey was conducted
including 383 animals from four different sites in Illinois
in the spring and summer of 2014 and 2015. Blood samples
from these animals were collected and quantitative PCR for
eight different pathogens was performed in a multiplex
format (Fluidigm). The following pathogens were
investigated: frog virus 3 (ranavirus), Mycoplasma,
Terrapene herpesvirus, box turtle adenovirus,
Salmonella
enteriditis, S. typhmirium, Borrelia, and
Anaplasma. The pathogen results were them compared to each other
and the biometric data of the individual animals that was
collected at the time of capture. Several animals were
positive for single pathogens but no individuals were
positive for multiple pathogens. The results of this survey
can be used to further conservation efforts across this
species range.
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Predicting Hatching Success in Eastern Box Turtles Across
Habitat Types
Anthony Beals,
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife,
Michigan State
University; Alicia Ihnken,
Michigan Department of
Natural Resources; Tracy Swem,
Michigan State University
In Michigan, eastern box turtles are considered a species of
special concern. Due to their status it is imperative to
minimize human impacts to hatching success by developing
specific guidelines to promote future growth trends. In our
previous field season, hatching success was observed to be
extremely low in the corn field. One of our hypotheses was
that corn fields act as sinks for hatchlings. As there are
two crops at the park, we wanted to determine if there were
differences between the corn and soybean plots. This project
evaluated potential hatching success across nesting habitat
types by interpolating temperatures across a spatial
gradient. We placed 19 temperature sensors at soil depths
consistent with eastern box turtle nests in 5 different
nesting habitat types consisting of a gravel pit, corn and
soybean fields, big blue stem dominated prairie, and a
species diverse remnant prairie. These sensors temporally
mimicked the natural nesting season at our field site. These
sites were in previously known or suspected nesting areas
based on data from a subset of radio- tracked female eastern
box turtles. Using nest incubation temperature, vegetation
structure, vegetation composition, and soil moisture we
evaluate the effects of habitat type on hatching success to
assess potential recruitment vulnerabilities across habitat
types. The gathered data can be used to develop habitat
management guidelines by state and federal wildlife
management organizations.
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Movement patterns and activity areas of
Terrapene coahuila
in the Cuatrocienegas Valley, Coahuila, Mexico.
Becerra Ernesto1, 3, Castañeda-Gaytán J. Gamaliel1,
Manríquez Morán Norma L2.
1. Laboratorio de Herpetología, Facultad de Ciencias
Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango.
2. Laboratorio de Sistemática Molecular, Centro de
Investigaciones Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado
de Hidalgo.
3. jorgeebl@gmail.com
The movements and home range of freshwater turtles are
influenced by many factors such as weather conditions and
resource distribution. Some of these factors have seasonal
changes; therefore, turtles display different patterns of
movements and home range. Information on the movement
patterns, space utilization and their seasonal changes is
needed to develop effective conservation measures for the
species, mostly in threatened species.
Terrapene
coahuila is a
semi-aquatic, endangered turtle endemic to the
Cuatrocienegas Valley. Its habitat has suffered severe
alterations, endangering both its survival as well as those
of other species of animals associated with aquatic habitats
in the valley. This study evaluated daily movement, home
range, and the percentage of home range overlap between
individuals for three seasons (Wet-Warm, Wet-cold,
Dry-Warm). Daily movements were assessed using telemetry and
home ranges were
calculated with fixed kernel estimator (95%). The daily
distance travelled was not statistically different between
the sexes within each season. However, males travelled
significantly longer distances during the Wet-Warm season
than they did in the other seasons, while females travelled
significantly longer distances during the Dry-Warm season.
The frequency of movements was similar in both sexes during
the Wet-Warm and Dry-Warm seasons. In the Wet-Cold season,
both sexes showed a significant reduction in the frequency
of movement. There were no significant differences in home
range size between sexes within and between seasons. Home
range overlap between males and females was highest during
the rainy season. Overlap between males was highest during
the Wet-Cold season. Females only overlapped during the
Dry-Warm season. The movement patterns of
T. coahuila
reflect the seasonal changes in the aquatic habitat, such as
the size, availability and interconnectivity of water bodies
into the valley, as well as reproductive behavior. A
considerable reduction or the loss of the aquatic habitat
would be a serious threat to the survival of the Coahuilan
Box Turtle.
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The Conservation Implications of Box Turtle Ranging Patterns
in Missouri
Stephen Blake, Saint
Louis Zoo, University of Missouri in Saint Louis, SUNY-ESF,
Washington University in Saint Louis
Jamie Palmer, Saint
Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine
Sharon Deem, Saint
Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine
The distribution and abundance of box turtles is thought to
be in decline due to habitat loss, mortality on roads and
disease.
However, monitoring population trajectories of long lived
cryptic species is difficult and the magnitude of change in
the conservation status of box turtles are largely unknown.
Understanding the ecological, behavioural and demographic
responses of individuals and populations to infrastructure
and land use change are important in predicting the future
survival and conservation status of box turtles, and for
improving habitat management.
Using radio-telemetry, we monitored the movements of a
sample of box turtles on the urban-rural interface in the
Saint Louis area to quantify ranging behaviour in relation
to habitat fragment size. We used the movement data in
conjunction with publicly available GIS data layers to
estimate the propensity of turtles to range outside of
suitable habitat and to cross roads throughout the state of
Missouri.
“Urban” turtles in small habitat patches had restricted home
ranges (mean 2.6Ha) and were largely confined to forest
fragments compared to the “rural” turtles (mean 75.7Ha). Of
two urban turtles that left their fragment, one was killed
by a mower, while rural turtles spent considerable time on
interstate highway verges. Even the most sedentary of urban
turtles would, if placed at a random location anywhere in
Missouri, have a >60% chance of crossing a public road at
least five times in a year, while the most mobile turtles
would have a 90% of crossing roads at least 10 times. Of all
Missouri forest, only 5073 fragments (8% of fragments) are
larger than the range of a single box turtle (240Ha) and
many of these have high edge/area ratios. Further growth of
road infrastructure and habitat loss will pose a serious
threat to box turtles in Missouri.
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Capture effort, rate, demographics, and potential for
disease transmission in wild eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina) captured through canine directed
searches
Kayla Boers1, Katie Leister1, John
Byrd2, Matthew C. Allender1
1Wildlife
Epidemiology Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Clinical
Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
2Clinch
River Environmental Studies Organization, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, USA
Correspondence to: Dr. Matt Allender, mcallend@illinois.edu.
Wildlife studies use a variety of techniques for capturing
target species. From 2006-2013, we evaluated search efforts
of trained Boykin spaniels (n=1825) and humans (n=138) to
find eastern box turtles in Tennessee and Illinois.
Total captures and capture rates by dog teams were
significantly higher than human capture rates. Demographics
(sex, weight, carapace length, and carapace width) of
turtles caught by dogs were not significantly different than
those found by humans.
Health status, determined through hematology (total
white blood cell count, packed cell volume, total solids)
and plasma biochemical analysis (aspartate aminotransferase,
and creatine kinase), were also not significantly different
between search groups.
Dogs and humans found similar numbers of turtles in
the following microhabitats: beside logs, on stream bank, in
streambed, on leaves, on grass, and in moist area.
However, dogs found more turtles under logs, in log
jams, besides streams, in brambles, and on soil. Humans
found significantly more turtles on roads.
In 2015, oral swab samples were taken from dogs
before and after each turtle was captured in Illinois.
Utilizing quantitative PCR, there was no detection of viral
or bacterial turtle pathogens (Terrapene herpesvirus 1 check for mold in animal room walls,
Mycoplasma sp., box turtle adenovirus) in any dog samples
collected even though 37% of the turtles captured had one or
multiple detectable pathogens. This study demonstrated the
utility of using trained dogs in demographic and health
investigations.
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The status of the Eastern Box Turtle population at Allee
Woods, Indiana, and the behavioral ecology of personality in
Box Turtles
Bradley E. Carlson
Department of Biology, Wabash College, Crawfordsville, IN
47933
Email: carlsonb@wabash.edu
Phone: 765 361 6460
Long-term monitoring efforts are critical for understanding
the population ecology of wild organisms, and especially so
for long-lived, secretive vertebrates like box turtles. Such
a study was conducted on Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) from 1958-1983 by Williams and Parker
(1987) at Allee Memorial Woods (AMW) in Parke Co. in
west-central Indiana. A renewed monitoring effort was
initiated in 2014, and preliminary data are now available
for comparison to Williams and Parker’s estimates of
population size and structure. Earlier estimates of
population size ranged from 2.7-5.7/ha. My estimate was
similar, at 4.0 turtles/ha (95% CI: 2.6-8.4 turtles/ha). In
contrast, the subadult proportion of the population (using
Williams and Parker’s criterion) declined from about 15-33%
in earlier estimates to 3-8%, suggesting that the population
structure may be shifting towards older individuals.
However, this is sensitive to the plastron length criterion
used by Williams and Parker and may also reflect seasonal
differences in activity among age groups, and thus the
apparent decline in young individuals may be spurious. The
sex ratio in the past tended to be male-biased but only
occasionally was this bias significant. In the current
sample, there was a significant and moderate male bias (65%
of population; 95% CI: 51%-78%). Altogether, this indicates
that the population has apparently been stable in size and
sex ratio but may be aging. Additionally, I explored for the
first time the presence and ecological correlates of
personality differences among individual box turtles. This
was done by radio-tracking a subset of sampled turtles,
combined with repeated behavioral assays, and reveal highly
consistent inter-individual variation in time to emerge from
the shell after perceived threats (i.e., handling by
humans). This variation in personality type was correlated
with body temperatures experienced in the field and injuries
on the shells: bolder turtles maintained higher body
temperatures and had fewer injuries. Consideration of the
distinct personality types of box turtles may be valuable
for understanding the impacts of environmental changes and
for planning reintroductions, and personality types may be
further correlated with important differences in physiology
that will be the subject of future research.
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The effects of prescribed fire on eastern box turtles in the
Oak Openings Preserve of Northwestern Ohio
Matthew D. Cross and Karen V. Root
Department of Biological Sciences
Bowling Green State University
Life Sciences Building
Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, USA
Eastern box turtles inhabit many fire-prone habitats
throughout their range, but the effects of fire on this
species are poorly understood. As part of a larger project
examining the long term spatial ecology of these turtles, we
had the opportunity to investigate the effects of
early-season prescribed fires on movement, home range sizes,
habitat use, and overwintering site fidelity. Using
radio-telemetry, we tracked 31 turtles throughout their
2014-2015 active seasons; 11 of these turtles were in areas
that experienced prescribed burns. We observed no immediate
post-fire mortality, but did note burn injuries to several
turtles and delayed burn mortality for up to four months
post-fire. Turtles that experienced a burn did not exhibit
different movement patterns or home range sizes than those
of turtles in unburned areas. There were, however,
differences in habitat selection, with burned over turtles
generally exhibiting weaker habitat preferences than turtles
who did not experience a burn. Turtles on burn units also
exhibited less overwintering site fidelity and lost more
weight during the active season. Our data indicate that
while prescribed fires do not affect the activity patterns
of box turtles in our study area, fires may influence
habitat selection, overwintering site fidelity, and body
condition, at least in the short term. We recommend
long-term monitoring of box turtles following exposure to
prescribed fires in order to get a better understanding of
how fires may affect local populations. The results from
this study suggest ways to minimize the impacts from
prescribed fires on box turtles.
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Evaluation of thermal ecology and hematology of free-ranging
Eastern box turtles in Illinois (Terrapene
carolina carolina)
Evan S. Emmel, Matthew C. Allender
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign
Environmental temperature has been linked to seasonal
variations of hematology profiles in chelonians.
Previous studies investigating correlations between
hematologic values and temperature have been based on
environmental temperature rather than body temperature
measurements. In
this study, a thermography camera was used to measure body
temperatures of free-ranging Eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina).
A total of 102 turtles were examined in 2015.
Body temperature at capture (n=86), head temperature
at PE (n=102), and body temperature at PE (n=101) were
measured using a thermography camera.
Blood samples were collected to measure PCV (n=102),
TS (n=102), WBC (n=100), and white blood cell differentials
(n=100).
Statistical analyses were performed to identify correlations
between body temperature measurements, air temperature,
habitats, and hematologic values.
Body temperature at capture and PE was significantly
correlated with air temperature, and body temperature at
capture was significantly different between habitat types.
PCV and TS were negatively correlated with air
temperature and with body temperature measurements at both
capture and PE.
Eosinophils and basophils were correlated with air
temperature, and basophils were also correlated with body
temperature at capture.
Identifying significant correlations between body
temperature, air temperature, habitat, and hematologic
values provides insight into the thermal ecology of Eastern
box turtles. The
results of this study can be applied to future studies that
further investigate the relationship between thermal ecology
and health of chelonians.
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Using Prescribed Fire in Grasslands: The Hatchling Dilemma
Alicia Ihnken
Michigan Department of Natural Resources - Parks and
Recreation Division
IhnkenA@michigan.gov, (517) 284-6129
Prescribed fire is an effective management tool frequently
used to alter, maintain, and restore vegetative communities
throughout Michigan.
It is also a tool that can negatively impact Eastern
box turtle populations.
There are several behavioral and natural history
traits that make reducing the negative impacts of grassland
management on box turtles challenging.
With hatchling emergence and limited fall dispersal
(mid-September through late October), near-surface
overwintering (October through April), and their slow
spring/summer withdrawal from the grass, hatchling box
turtles are vulnerable to grassland fire for up to nine (or
more) months of the year.
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Assessing Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene
carolina) Habitat Selection with Public-Use LIDAR Data
Ethan J. Kessler
Illinois Natural History Survey, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, USA
ekessle2@illinois.edu,
Ph. #: (708) 945-0076
Evaluating habitat use and selection can be difficult with
movement-limited organisms, such as Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene
carolina).
Spatial autocorrelation of successive points is intrinsic in
the movement paths of these animals and can bias
conclusions.
These problems are further compounded when habitat selection
is evaluated on the landscape with remote sensing data or
habitat maps constructed with Geographic Information
Systems. These
products can be subjective and are often not at a proper
scale or resolution to fully evaluate habitat selection in
species without truly unrestricted movement in the
environment.
Products with too coarse resolution will include
surrounding, unused habitats averaged with the used habitat
into a single pixel value, weakening evidence of habitat
preference.
LIDAR can be used to create accurate map products with
sub-meter accuracy which can be tailored to project needs.
LIDAR products are freely available from government
agencies in many regions and freeware is available to
process these data.
To test the value of LIDAR in habitat selection
studies, I created map products of our study site for
elevation, slope, canopy cover, and edge habitat.
At this site, 25 individual
T. carolina were
radio-tracked from May-November 2009 with an average of 92.8
locations per turtle.
Habitat characteristics of used points were compared
to random points using a Step Selection Function which
generates random points based on probabilistic movement
patterns.
Habitat selection was assessed with conditional logistic
regression which compares used points to paired random
points, minimizing spatial autocorrelation.
T. carolina
preferred sites with edge habitat, but showed no preference
for any other habitat type included in the analysis.
These results not only illustrate the utility of
LIDAR based habitat selection models, but provide evidence
for the preference of edge habitat in
T. carolina.
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Epidemiological characteristics of a frog virus 3-like
Ranavirus outbreak in a population of captive eastern box
turtles Terrapene c.
carolina
Steven J.A. Kimble1,3, April J. Johnson2,
Rod N. Williams1, and Jason T. Hoverman1
1Department
of Forestry and Natural Resources, College of Agriculture,
Purdue University, 715 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN
2College
of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, 625 Harrison
Street, West Lafayette, IN
3Corresponding
author: S Kimble, sjkimble@gmail.com, 765.494.6463
Ranaviruses are significant emerging pathogens of fishes,
amphibians, and reptiles, and contribute to significant mass
mortality events worldwide. Our understanding of many of the
epidemiological factors of ranavirus dynamics, especially
among reptilian hosts, remains limited. In the current study
we monitored a ranaviral outbreak in a wild-caught captive
population of 317 eastern box turtles that was being
translocated from the site of a highway construction
project. We were able to monitor the outbreak from the index
cases through an outbreak phase (early 2013) and a
post-outbreak year (mid 2013 - late 2014) using clinical
evaluations and qPCR. Mortality was high in the first phase,
with approximately 222 mortalities by July 2013. In the
second (post-outbreak) phase, only five documented
mortalities occurred. Survivorship was 73.7% (95% CI: 68.6%,
79.2%) during the outbreak phase and 51.1% (95% CI: 44.4%,
58.8%) during the post-outbreak phase. Prevalence ranged
from 7% to 94% for the population. Fourteen day cumulative
precipitation and 14 day mean daily maximum temperature were
significantly positively related to the proportion of
individuals that were qPCR positive for ranavirus during the
post-outbreak phase of the monitoring but not the outbreak
phase. Clinical signs of disease of the mouth and nose were
significantly related to the proportion of individuals qPCR
positive during the outbreak phase but only oral signs were
significant in the post-outbreak phase. Disagreement among
standard less-invasive sample types (blood, oral swab and
oral swab) was low (e.g., 22.0% among all three standard
types). Tissues taken from dead individuals were qPCR
positive in 56.7% (kidney) to 88.7% (esophagus) of samples.
Conservation recommendations include not concentrating
individuals during translocation events, providing
veterinary care to mitigate the effects of ranaviral
disease, and the continued use of multiple sample types for
surveillance.
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Small steps towards BIG conservation
Keri Lammering,
Conservation Education Liaison, St. Louis Zoo
Whitney Collins M.Sc.,
Outreach Instructor, St. Louis Zoo
The St. Louis Box Turtle Project takes a holistic approach
to research and outreach for box turtle conservation in the
Midwest. The project consists of three core components: 1)
scientific research on the ecology and health of urban and
rural box turtles, 2) education to connect people to nature,
and 3) create awareness of population decline. Our
multidisciplinary team works to achieve the overarching goal
of turtle conservation based on strong field ecological and
health science studies and outreach opportunities.
Our outreach efforts largely focus on connecting young
people to nature. To this end, we focused on four schools
within an eight kilometer radius of Forest Park in St.
Louis, our urban field site. This proximity creates a strong
local connection by highlighting nature within walking
distance to students’ schools and neighborhoods. We provide
two classroom visits and two field visits for students
between third and sixth grades.
This project provides a strong STEM
(multidisciplinary education initiative combining Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Math) opportunity by immersing
students in the scientific component of the project through
radio telemetry of turtles and data collection alongside
project researchers. Furthermore, the project involves a
strong collaboration with our sister project in the
Galapagos Islands, the Galapagos Tortoise Movement Ecology
Programme, which uses giant tortoises to connect students in
Galapagos to their natural surroundings.
In this presentation we will discuss how our first year
evaluations revealed common misconceptions about wildlife
and how this information is helping us to strengthen our
conservation messaging as we move forward with the project.
We will also discuss how the partnership between the St.
Louis Box Turtle Project and the Galapagos Tortoise Movement
Ecology Programme creates an opportunity for us to connect
students internationally using social media, video
messaging, and shared curriculum.
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Size Matters:
Measuring Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina)
Douglas Lawton1, Ann Berry Somers1,
and Amy Germuth2
1University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2EvalWorks
Email: Douglas Lawton ddlawton@uncg.edu
Phone: Ann Somers 336.361.5459
Morphometric measuring techniques and tools vary in studies
on Eastern Box Turtles. For example calipers of different
jaw lengths are being used. At the 2013 Box Turtle
Conservation Workshop, we tested novice data collectors and
expert researchers on the use of different sized calipers.
Forty six subjects were asked to measure min and max
carapace length (CL) and shell height of the same Eastern
Box Turtle shell with long (6.35cm, 2.5 in) and short
(3.81cm, 1.5 in) jawed calipers. Long and short jawed
caliper measurements differed significantly with the
exception of min CL. There was no significant difference
between measurements taken by seventeen experienced and
twenty nine inexperience data collectors. This study reveals
a potential discrepancy in the measurements of Eastern Box
Turtles taken with long vs. short jawed calipers. Measuring
experience does not affect the quality of data collected,
hence trained citizen scientists such as those in the Box
Turtle Connection project can be a reliable resource for
collecting accurate data.
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Thermal Challenges of Overwintering Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene c. carolina) in Eastern Illinois
Kelsey Low1*, Chris Phillips1, Ethan
Kessler1, Jeanne Baker2
1Illinois
Natural History Survey, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, IL, 61820
*corresponding author contact: kmlow2@illinois.edu
2Fish
and Wildlife Research Institute, Gainesville, FL
Ectotherms must evolve to withstand the many challenges
presented by winter in temperate ecosystems. The Eastern Box
Turtle (Terrapene c.
carolina) combats sub-zero temperatures by mobilizing
glucose in the bloodstream. To determine the extent to which
Eastern Box Turtles tolerate freezing in the wild, we
collected temperature data adjacent to 24 over-wintering box
turtles from November 2009 to April 2010 in Vermillion
County, Illinois. We placed temperature probes in substrate
near each individual brumating turtle at the depth of each
form and removed them after the turtles had emerged.
Twenty-three turtles survived the winter and one was lost
due to transmitter failure. Seven turtles were exposed to
below-freezing temperatures for several days, and two
experienced multiple freezing episodes.
A General Mixed Model revealed that box turtles
selected hibernacula on Southwestern facing slopes, which
provide greater solar radiation and offer some shelter from
winter winds, prevailing from the west and north-west.
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Seasonal Stress and Blood Chemistry of Ornate Box Turtles in
Restored Prairies of North-central Illinois
Joseph R. Milanovich1*, Brock P. Struecker1,
Leigh Anne Harden2, Jennifer Fernandez1
1Department
of Biology, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL 60660
2Department
of Biological Sciences, Benedictine University, Lisle, Il
60532
*Presenting author:
jmilanovich@luc.edu, (773) 508.3635
The development and conversion of native prairies, primarily
to agricultural land, has left only 3% of original native
prairie habitat in the United States.
Species dependent on prairie habitat, such as the
Ornate Box Turtle (Terrapene
ornata), have thus also declined.
In Illinois, T.
ornata was recently listed as threatened, despite its
historically common distribution in the extensive prairie
systems of the northern portion of the state.
Little remains known about the demography, ecology
and overall health of
T. ornata populations in this region, particularly those
which inhabit smaller, restored/remnant prairies in
north-central Illinois.
Thus, we investigated the seasonal activity and
physiological health status of two
T. ornata
populations across one year using radiotelemetry,
temperature dataloggers, and blood tissue collection.
Specifically, turtles from two populations in Will and
Grundy Counties, Illinois were fitted with
radio-transmitters and temperature dataloggers, and were
consequently followed one to three times per week from April
2015 – April 2016.
Once per month between April to September 2015 we
secured each turtle to take a blood sample (<0.25 ml) from
the subcarapacial vein.
A blood chemistry panel measuring concentrations of
Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, glucose, hematocrit, urea, hemoglobin,
and creatinine was immediately performed on whole
blood using an i-STAT point-of-care (POC) handheld
blood analyzer and an i-STAT CHEM8+ cartridge. Whole blood
was also used to create three blood smears per turtle to
investigate blood cell morphology and parasites using a
standard light microscope under 1000x (oil). Our results
indicate seasonal variation in several blood chemistry
metrics across both sites, driven by variation during spring
months.
Furthermore, our data did not show any measurable variation
in blood cell morphology and no parasites were identified.
An assessment of
T. ornata populations, specifically data regarding the blood
chemistry, is much needed to further establish specific
conservation targets for this threatened species.
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Home Range and Habitat Use of The Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina) in the Northern Georgia Piedmont
H. Smith, K. Valetutto, B. Gedeon; Advisors: J.L Mook and
N.L. Hyslop;
Department of Biology, The University of North Georgia
The Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene
carolina) is a long-lived (an average lifespan of 50
years) terrestrial species found throughout the Eastern
United States. Despite classification as vulnerable by the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature, data
regarding habitat use and home range is limited, especially
in the southeastern Piedmont region of the U.S. We have been
conducting a multi-year radiotelemetry and
capture-mark-recapture investigation of the species in the
northeastern Piedmont region of Georgia. We captured turtles
by hand in mixed hardwood-pine uplands and mesic areas
dominated by Chinese Privet (Ligustrum
sinense), between spring 2012 and fall 2015. To date, we
have fitted 15 Eastern Box Turtles with radio transmitters
(Holohil, 16g), and radio-tracked individuals by foot 1-2
times per week. Microhabitat data collected at
radiolocations included vegetation cover, environmental
temperatures, and forest stand basal area. We used 100%
minimum complex polygons to estimate individual home range
area used during foraging, mating, resting, traveling, and
overwintering. To date, we have collected 5-134
radiolocations per individual. Home ranges varied from 0.16
to 6.10 ha. Turtles primarily used exotic habitats dominated
by Chinese Privet (51%), with use of hardwood-pine uplands
dominated by native vegetation (36%), human maintained clear
cut habitat (9%), and beaver-created wetland habitats (4%).
Assessment of home ranges and habitat use will continue
through 2016 as we maintain tracking and
capture-mark-recapture efforts.
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Health Threats to Urban and Rural Box Turtles in Missouri
Sharon L. Deem, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ACZM,
Saint Louis Zoo
Institute for Conservation Medicine
Jamie L. Palmer, MS,
Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine
Stephen Blake, PhD,
Saint Louis Zoo, University of Missouri in Saint Louis,
SUNY-ESF, Washington University in Saint Louis
Turtles are in decline throughout the US due to
over-harvesting, road kill and habitat loss caused by urban
development, and disease. Although few studies have been
conducted in Missouri, these same threats are hypothesized
to be present for box turtles in the state.
To better understand conservation challenges for box
turtles in Missouri, we started the St. Louis Box Turtle
Project in 2012.
In this project we have studied two populations of box
turtles; one in St. Louis’ Forest Park (FP) and the other at
Tyson Research Center (TRC), with 4 years of data now
amassed. These
two geographically separate populations have provided a
means for us to compare turtles in an urban versus rural
habitat. These
sites also offer on-the-doorstep opportunities for outreach
and environmental education as presented in a sister
presentation at this meeting.
We sought to determine how movement ecology and health
status of box turtles vary between and within sites and to
apply these data towards conservation. A subset of turtles
at both sites were fitted with radio-transmitters and
tracked weekly (n=18).
Additionally, health assessments were performed on
all turtles encountered at designated periods during the
year (e.g. health weeks), including hematology, chemistry
profiles, corticosterone levels, and infectious disease
status. We also
marked all box turtles encountered, performed physical exams
and collected infectious agent data from April through
October.
To date we have 1855 movement data points which includes
1193 points from 114 turtles in FP and 662 points from 114
turtles in TRC. From 2012 – 2014 we have 141 blood samples,
77 from FP and 64 from TRC, and 150 cloaca and 141 choanae
swabs which have now been tested.
Results support a number of differences between the
two populations including different mortality rates,
physical abnormalities and prevalence of infectious
diseases.
However, we also note many similarities, including body
condition index, and hematologic and stress hormone values
in turtles at the two sites.
These data, along with the movement ecology data, are
valuable in guiding management strategies that may help
ensure box turtle survival.
Citations
Palmer, JL., Blake, S., Wellehan, JFX., Childress,
AL., Deem, SL. 2016. Clinical Mycoplasma sp. infections in
free-living three-toed box turtles (Terrapene
carolina triunguis) in Missouri. Journal of Wildlife
Diseases. In press
Blake, S., Kozwolski, C., Fung, J., Wang, J., and
Deem, S.L. Rural box turtles in Missouri have bigger home
ranges and lower corticosterone levels than urban ones. In:
4th Box Turtle Conservation Workshop. Asheboro Zoo,
Asheboro, NC. March 22-23, 2013.
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Responses of Eastern Box Turtles to Prescribed Fire in the
North Carolina Sandhill
John H. Roe
Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at
Pembroke
Prescribed fire is an essential tool for the conservation
and management of longleaf forests, and it is thus widely
employed in the Southeastern United States.
While such management practices may result in the
unintentional injury or killing of box turtles, we know
little regarding how turtles respond behaviorally, nor do we
understand how such fires affect survival.
From 2012 – 2015, we assessed responses of box
turtles to fire at Weymouth Woods Sandhills Nature Preserve
(WEWO) relative to turtles at the nearby Lumber River State
Park (LRSP) where fire is not used in management.
Turtles in the fire-managed systems (WEWO) selected
mesic habitats such as hardwood forests, bottomlands, and
streams while largely avoiding more xeric longleaf uplands.
In contrast, hardwood forests, bottomlands, and
streams were not selected by turtles at the LRSP.
Turtles at WEWO utilized longleaf habitats 15 – 20 %
of the active season but were burned on only three
occasions, with one resulting in turtle mortality.
Survival models indicated no differences in annual
mortality between sites, with annual survival ranging
between 95 – 96% for males and 81 – 92% for females at both
sites. Our
initial results suggest that turtles largely avoid areas
prone to intense fires, but whether this is a fire-avoidance
mechanism or simply behavioral responses to other
environmental factors is still in question.
Further studies to assess the response of box turtles
to fire over longer time-frames would help land managers
understand the implications of current management practices
for non-target biota, and perhaps improve the implementation
of prescribed burning in the future.
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John Rucker,
The Importance of Grassland Habitats and Corridors to Box
Turtles. (Presentation and video)
(No abstract provided)
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Building a 100-Year Project: Assuring Data Quality in The
Box Turtle Connection
Ann Berry Somers1 and Ashley LaVere2
1University
of North Carolina at Greensboro
2The
Georgia Sea Turtle Center
absomers@uncg.edu and aalavere3@gmail.com
The Box Turtle Connection (BTC), established in 2008, is a
long-term research study on box turtle populations in North
Carolina
anticipated to last at least 100 years. The BTC depends on
trained volunteers, Project Leaders, who collect
morphometric data on box turtles at 32 different sites
across North Carolina.
As we approach the end of the first decade of this project,
we are assessing the quality of our data to assure its
current and future integrity. Project Leaders are receiving
site reports as constructive feedback that include basic
findings as well as flagged data for them to reevaluate and
compare with original data sheets. For example, we flagged
carapace length (CL) measurements on recaptured turtles that
indicated negative growth since turtles are normally not
expected to become smaller. Though some turtles may decrease
is size, it is important to reevaluate the data to ensure
its accuracy to the best of our ability. Any measurement
data showing 5% or less negative growth were considered to
be acceptable variation and not flagged. Overall, out of the
8196 data points evaluated, 5% of were flagged for
reexamination by Project Leaders. The amount and type of
flagged data differs between sites, some projects having
considerably more than others. Any long term study is a
challenge, but we are discovering new ways and techniques to
make our project 100 years strong.
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Investigating mosquitoes as a vector for frog virus-3
(FV3)-like ranavirus
Brittany Willeford, Matthew C. Allender, and Brian Allan
Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois,
Urbana, IL
The purpose of this study was to explore if Frog virus-3
(FV3)-like ranavirus is carried in mosquitoes. Mosquitoes
were collected once a week for twelve weeks spanning mid-May
to early August from four sites in Vermillion County,
Illinois. These sites are regularly surveyed for FV3 in
free-ranging eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina). Mosquito traps were placed near
standing water and on the edge of moderately wooded areas in
the late afternoon and early evening in an attempt to
collect mosquitoes during peak activity at dusk and dawn.
The traps were picked up the next morning as well as the
early afternoon and placed on ice until they were returned
to the lab for species sorting. Only
Aedes canadensis, Culex erraticus, Culex teritans, and
Uranotaenia sapphirina mosquito species were deemed
relevant as they are likely candidates to feed on reptiles
in the location of interest. Only specimens of these species
were sorted and grouped by site, species, and collection
date. The mosquito DNA was extracted and purified then
quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was completed
for detection of FV3. qPCR was run on each species group by
collection date and site. FV3 was not found in any of the
samples.
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Posters
Diagnosis of Ranavirus Using Bone Marrow Harvested From
Mortality Events in Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina)
Claire E. Butkus, BS,1* Matthew C. Allender, DVM,
PhD, Dipl ACZM,1 Laura A. Adamovicz, DVM,1
and Christopher A. Phillips, PhD2
1Wildlife
Epidemiology Lab, Department of Comparative Biosciences,
College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois,
Urbana, IL 61802 USA
2Illinois
Natural History Survey, Champaign, IL 61820 USA
Frog virus-3 like ranavirus (FV3) causes significant
morbidity and mortality in many species of chelonians. FV3
infection has been documented in eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina) in many states, and is a disease of
conservation concern for this vulnerable species.4,5
Mortality events in free-ranging box turtles have been
reported, however turtles skeletonize rapidly after death
due to exposure to the elements and the action of scavengers
leaving little soft
tissue for diagnostic testing.1,3 There is clear
utility for an FV3 diagnostic test that can be performed on
skeletal remains, as it is an important differential
diagnosis for high mortality outbreaks of free-living box
turtles. In this study, a technique to harvest
bone marrow from skeletonized box turtle shells was
developed. The
bone marrow samples were tested for FV3 DNA using an
established FV3 TaqMan quantitative PCR assay.2 Shells
(N=96) collected from box turtle mortality events in central
Illinois from 2011-2015 were tested. Fifteen turtles were
positive for FV3. Concurrent perimortem FV3 testing was
performed on oral swabs, tissue or whole blood for fourteen
of the individuals. Three of the fourteen individuals tested
positive for FV3 in both bone marrow and perimortem samples,
nine individuals were negative on both tests, and one
individual was positive only in bone marrow (substantial
agreement). Our procedure is easily performed and can serve
as a means for biologists and wildlife veterinarians to
improve post-mortem surveillance for ranavirus in box
turtles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Grace Archer, Kayla Boers,
Marta Rzadkowska, Cari Rasmussen, Teri Lloyd, and the team
of veterinary students at the University of Illinois who
assisted with the collection of these box turtle shells. The
authors would also like to thank Elena Dzhaman for her
assistance with the lab work associated with this project.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Allender MC, Mitchell MA, McRuer D, Christian S, Byrd J.
Prevalence, clinical signs, and natural history
characteristics of frog virus 3-like infections in eastern
box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina). Herpetol Conserv Biol.
2013;8:308-320.
2. Allender MC, Bunick D, Mitchell MA. Development and
validation of TaqMan quantitative PCR for detection of frog
3-like virus in eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina). J Virol Methods. 2013;188:121-125.
3. Brunner JL, Storfer A, Gray MJ, Hoverman JT. Ranavirus
ecology and evolution: from epidemiology to extinction. In:
Gray MJ, Chinchar VG (eds.). Ranaviruses: lethal
pathogenesis of ectothermic vertebrates. New York (NY):
Springer International Publishing; 2015. p. 71-104.
4. Johnson AJ, Pessier AP, Wellenhan JF, Childress A, Norton
TM, Stedman NL, Bloom DC, Belzer W, Titus VR, Wagner R,
Brooks JW, Spratt J, Jacobson ER. Ranavirus infection of
free-ranging and captive turtles and tortoises in the United
States. J Wildl Dis. 2008;44:851-863.
5. van Dijk, PP, 2013.
Terrapene carolina, In: IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species.
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An Open-source Hardware GPS Data Logger for Wildlife
Radio-telemetry Studies: a Case Study Using Eastern Box
Turtles
Patrick W Cain
Department of Biology, Indiana State University, Terre
Haute, IN 47809, USA
pcain1@sycamores.indstate.edu
Matthew D Cross
Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State
University, Bowling Green, OH 43403
mcross@bgsu.edu
Radio-telemetry is one of the most effective tools in
wildlife biology that allows researchers to gather
information on focal species that would be otherwise
impossible to obtain. However, relocations using
radio-telemetry can influence behavior of the focal animal
when frequent measurements are required. An alternative form
of tracking, i.e. GPS receivers, can mitigate the influence
of researchers on the behavior of focal animals, allowing
for more points to be gathered over an equivalent amount of
time, while also requiring fewer in situ person hours. Many
GPS data loggers of this type are very expensive, and may be
too large for terrestrial turtles. Here, we discuss the
potential use of a microcontroller called Arduino™ in
developing an open-source hardware GPS logger for use with
eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina). We also discuss results from field tests with
box turtles in northwest Ohio, as well as hardware designs
and coding. Arduino is a prototyping “breakout board” that
can send and receive instructions to peripherals, such as
environmental sensors (e.g. temperature, humidity), GPS
receivers, cameras, etc. Our prototype logger uses an
Arduino Pro Mini (3.3 volt) along with a low-power GP-20U7
GPS receiver and micro SD card for data storage. This
particular receiver supports a standard NMEA-0183 protocol,
allowing the recording of location, time, date, elevation,
etc. Depending on vendor, hardware components can cost as
low as $20 and weigh less than 20 grams. Deployment duration
is dependent on battery size, which can be customized to
meet specific project goals through balancing mass and
duration. Programming is based on the user-friendly Arduino
programming language, and all code for our logger is
available at an online code repository (bitbucket.org).
Arduino™ microcontrollers and sensors are relatively
inexpensive, and programming and wiring are easy to learn
because of its open-source nature. Many projects are made
available online and include wiring diagrams and code, so
any similar project can be adapted to meet one’s specific
need. We encourage anyone interested to share ideas or
modifications for both hardware and code that might make
these GPS loggers more efficient or accessible.
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Pattern Recognition Software as a Supplemental Method of
Identifying Eastern Box Turtle Resting Metabolism of Eastern
Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina)
Matthew D. Cross
Department of Biological Sciences,
Bowling Green State University,
Life Sciences Building, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, USA
Eric J. Tobin
Tobin International, LLC,
Albion, Michigan 49224, USA
Gregory J. Lipps, Jr.
Gregory Lipps, LLC,
Delta, Ohio 43515, USA
Janice M. Sapak
Manistee, Michigan 49660, USA
Karen V. Root
Department of Biological Sciences,
Bowling Green State University,
Life Sciences Building, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, USA
Identifying and monitoring individuals is essential in
behavioral and ecological studies. As technology improves,
researchers have shifted from traditional marking techniques
and have started photographing conspicuous marks to identify
individuals.
Eastern box turtles (Terrapene
c. carolina) are ideal candidates for photographic
identification of unique markings on their shell.
The objectives of this study are: test pattern
recognition as a viable method of identifying individual
eastern box turtles; determining if top-down/off-center
carapace or plastron photos were more diagnostic; and to
test a pattern recognition program, WildID, in identifying
individuals from different populations. We collected 1200
photos of box turtles from four locations in two states.
Using both original and cropped, distorted or altered
images, the program never mismatched individuals, making
WildID highly sufficient in identifying individual box
turtles. Additionally, we found carapace and plastron photos
to be more accurate than off-center images. We encourage
researchers and naturalists who have taken photographs of
eastern box turtles to utilize this software to rapidly
analyze historical photo libraries for identifying
recaptured individuals. This sort of recognition software,
combined with citizen-science programs, could provide the
means for mark-recapture studies of eastern box turtles over
a large geographic range.
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Body Condition of Box Turtles Evaluated by Computed
Tomography
S. dePersio1, M.C. Allender1, M.J. Dreslik2,
C.A. Phillips2, S. Joslyn3, R.T.
O’Brien3
1Wildlife
Epidemiology Laboratory, Department of Comparative
Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, IL
2
Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute,
University of Illinois, Champaign, IL
3Department
of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, University of Illinois
College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, Illinois
Conservation efforts that determine the health status of
individuals can aid in assessing population health. We
investigated the body condition index in 65 free-ranging
Eastern box turtles (Terrapene
carolina carolina) from four locations in Vermillion
County, IL in 2014 using computed tomography (CT). Physical
examinations were performed to determine morphometric
measurements and CT scans measured body fat . Twenty-three
linear models were constructed to determine which
morphometric measurements best correlated to fat content. Of
the linear models evaluated, the top two relating to body
fat included mass and carapace width (CW), and mass alone.
CT scan, while impractical for daily use, allows the capture
of information that can be used to improve upon previous
methods of measuring body condition. By understanding how
these measurements correlate to body condition,
practitioners, researchers, and conservationists can
evaluate chelonians with increased confidence in the
accuracy of their assessment.
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Initial Assessment of Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene
carolina carolina) Population Status and Trends in North
Carolina’s Protected Areas
1Casey
M. Haywood, 1John H. Roe, 2Ann B.
Somers
1University
of North Carolina at Pembroke
2University
of North Carolina at Greensboro
Over the past several decades, Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene carolina carolina) populations have exhibited a steady
decline in North
Carolina. Declines can be attributed to habitat loss,
road mortality, disease, and overexploitation in the pet
trade. Turtles are especially vulnerable owing to life
history characteristics such as slow growth rate, delayed
maturity, and high egg and juvenile mortality. Despite
continuing threats to turtle populations, few states have
formal monitoring programs to assess
T. c. carolina
population status and trends. Such information is critical
to tailor conservation and management strategies. Using data
compiled by the Box Turtle Connection’s statewide monitoring
program, we are able to assess and identify population
trends throughout the state’s diverse physiographic regions.
This research examines the Box Turtle Connection’s
capture-mark-recapture dataset, allowing us to assess
population trends at a local, regional, and statewide scale
spanning over a 10 year time period at 38 protected
locations. Using the program MARK, we plan to estimate
relative population size and density across sites and over
time. Additionally, we will assess size-frequency
distributions, sex ratios, survivorship, and growth rates.
Our results will allow for an initial assessment of
population trends throughout the state, which will allow
conservationists and land managers an opportunity to 1)
assess and compare box turtle populations in various
protected areas, 2) identify changes in population size,
demographics, and health, and 3) tailor conservation and
management strategies to help recover and maintain
T. c. carolina populations.
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Eastern Box Turtle Research in Southwest Michigan: What
We’ve Learned After Four Years
Alicia Ihnken
Michigan Department of Natural Resources - Parks and
Recreation Division
IhnkenA@michigan.gov, (517) 284-6129
In 2012, we initiated an Eastern box turtle research project
to evaluate the population status and the effects of land
management activities (including prescribed fire) on box
turtles at Fort Custer Recreation Area (southwest Michigan).
Over the last four years, along with the development
of a transmitter removal tool, we have new insights on
potential emergence consequences resulting from fall
prescribed burns, direct and indirect box turtle responses
to prescribed fire, agricultural fields acting as nesting
sinks, and have learned that color really does matter when
it comes to using monofilament to track hatchlings.
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Activity Areas, Habitat Use And Habitat Preference Of
Sympatric Box Turtles
Andrew R. Kuhns
Illinois Natural History Survey, Prairie Research Institute,
University of Illinois, 1816 South Oak St. Champaign, IL
61820
I examined the activity areas, habitat use and habitat
preference of sympatric box turtles
Terrapene
carolina and
T. ornata in degraded
old field habitat at South Shore State Park in Clinton
County, Illinois. Historically, the site was an ecotone of
prairie and a forested riparian zone along the Kaskaskia
River but had been converted to row crop agriculture and
cattle pasture prior to 1939. During this study, the site
was dominated by open-canopy degraded prairie and
closed-canopy degraded woodland savanna with an understory
dominated by exotic olives (Eleaganus
sp.). Thus, the study site was formerly ecologically
transitional and is now human modified with structurally
suitable habitat for both
T.
carolina and
T.
ornata.
Turtles were radio-tracked daily from April through October.
Mean Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) activity areas were
3.20 ha for T.
ornata and 1.98 ha
for T.
carolina but 95%
kernel home range estimates were 1.54 ha for both species.
Individual activity areas overlapped both inter- and
intra-specifically. Macro-habitat rankings from most to
least preferred, as determined by compositional analysis
were: T.
carolina -
Degraded Woodland, Degraded Prairie, Exotic Olive Management
Area, Developed, and Agriculture; and
T.
ornata - Degraded
Prairie, Degraded Woodland, Exotic Olive Management Area,
Agriculture, and Developed. At the micro-habitat scale
(comparing observed locations to random sites)
T.
carolina used
habitat randomly and, while four
T.
ornata used habitat that was significantly more open than random,
three used more closed canopy habitat.
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Road Mortality of Turtles: a Comparison Between Highway,
Rural, Suburban and Urban Areas
Ariel Petrilla
Ariel.richter@okstate.edu
(405) 602-4971
University of Central Oklahoma
As fragmentation due to human encroachment into wild lands
continues, monitoring populations of wildlife is critical if
we are to make management decisions in conservation biology.
Because of low hatchling survival, slow recruitment into
breeding populations, and delayed sexual maturity, turtles
are highly susceptible to increases in mortality and have
been extirpated from many areas. In Oklahoma, because of
urbanization and associated increases in roads and traffic,
areas that once supported robust turtle populations may now
be experiencing declines in turtle abundance. I sampled four
sets of sites (highway, rural, suburban, and urban) during
May-July 2015 making a total of 7 trips that resulted in 135
individuals of 8 species. While the first phase of sampling
encompassed all Oklahoma species, subsequent sampling phases
are aimed to focus on
Terrapene carolina and
T. ornata in
particular. More individuals were found on highways and in
rural areas and more females were found than males for all
species present. For all species, 92 individuals (n=74 dead,
n=18 alive) were located on highways connecting sampling
sites. More individuals were present at rural sites (n=33)
compared to suburban (n=6) or urban (n=4) sites. Excluding
highways, more live turtles (n=35) were found than dead
turtles (n=8), but all live turtles found in suburban and
urban locations (n=8) had recent or past physical trauma
while few live turtles in rural locations (n=27) showed such
signs. Long term goals include further data analysis,
habitat analysis, and repeated trips to the same sites
during summer 2016 to give a better understanding of
seasonal movements.
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